Discoveries And Inventions In Fundamental Sciences History Essay

Discoveries And Inventions In Fundamental Sciences History Essay There is a general concept that the sciences are exclusively the products of Western minds. Review of any standard book or encyclopedias regarding the history of science makes evident that the only contributors are Europeans and/or Americans. The most oft-mentioned names are Kepler, Galileo, Copernicus, Bacon, Da Vinci, Franklin, Newton, Benjamin etc. Thus it is made unavoidable to conclude the major contributions to the development of the modern sciences by other cultures are minimal. The advancements made by ancient Chinese, Indian or particularly, Muslim scholars are hardly mentioned in most standard books and literature. Although Western civilization has made many invaluable contributions to the development of the sciences however, so have numerous other cultures. Unfortunately, Westerners have long been credited with discoveries that were made by muslims scientists many centuries before. Thus, many of the basic sciences were invented by non-Europeans. For instance, George Sarton states that modern Western medicine did not originate from Europe and that it actually arose from the (Islamic) orient. inShare91 515 points on reddit Major Inventions of Muslim Scientists: A number of inventions and discoveries were made by the Muslim scientists throughout the history. Muslim geographers and navigators learned the use of magnetic needle, from the Chinese, and were the first to use magnetic needles in navigation. Muslims invented the compass and its use in navigation, which was later on passed to the West. European navigators relied on Muslim pilots and their instruments while exploring the unknown territories. Gustav Le Bon claims that the magnetic needle and compass were the inventions of Muslims. The Chinese, probably learned of it from Muslim traders. It is noteworthy that after the interaction with the Muslims during the 8th century the Chinese improved their navigational expertise. Ibn Firnas a Muslim scientist of Islamic Spain invented, constructed and tested a flying machine in the 800s A.D. Roger Bacon learned of flying machines from Arabic references to Ibn Firnas machine. According to Will Durant, Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain, invented a watch-like device in 9th century, which kept accurate time. The Muslims also constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories. As early as the 9th century A.D Muslim mathematicians, the inventors of algebra, introduced the concept of using letters for unknown variables in equations. They solved a variety of complex equations through this system, including quadratic and cubic equations. They used symbols to develop and perfect the binomial theorem. Thabit bin Qurrah was among the first Mathematicians of the Islamic Empire who accomplished this precisely this as early as the 9th century A.D, and he was followed by Abul Wafa, whose 10th century book utilized algebra to advance geometry into an exact and simplified science. In the 9th century Muslim astronomers made numerous improvements upon Ptolemys findings. They were the first astronomers to dispute his archaic ideas. They produced hundreds of highly accurate astronomical tables and star charts. Many of their calculations are so precise that they are regarded as contemporary. Copies of works on astronomy the Alphonsine Tables was transmitted to Europe via Islamic Spain, i.e. the Toledo Tables. In their critic of the Greeks, Muslims synthesized proof that the sun is the center of the solar system and that the orbits of other planets and the earth might be elliptical. During the 9th century the Muslim physician originated the science of pharmacology and was developed into a highly refined and exact science. Muslim chemists, pharmacists and physicians produced thousands of drugs and/or crude herbal extracts one thousand years prior to the supposed birth of pharmacology. During the 9th century, eyeglasses were invented by Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain and they were manufactured and sold throughout Spain for over two centuries. Any mention of eyeglasses by Roger Bacon was simply a regurgitation of the work of al-Haytham (d. 1039), whose research Bacon frequently referred to. During the 8th through 15th centuries, Muslim geographers produced untold volumes of books on the geography of Africa, Asia, India, China and the Indies. These writings included the worlds first geographical encyclopedias, almanacs and road maps. The 14th century masterpieces of Ibn Battutah provide a detailed view of the geography of the ancient world. The science of ethnography was invented by the Muslim scholars of the 9th through 14th centuries. A number of Muslim geographers classified the races, writing detailed explanations of their physical appearances and unique cultural habits. Blumenbachs works were insignificant in comparison. Muslim physicians used a variety of specific substances to destroy microbes. They applied sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite. Ar-Razi (10th century) used mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics. During the 9th and 10th centuries, the Venetians learned of the art of fine glass production from Syrian artisans. Glass mirrors were in use in Islamic Spain as early as the 11th century. Ibn Yunus al-Masri discovered the pendulum in the 10th century, and was the first to study and document its oscillatory motion. Its value for use in clocks was introduced by Muslim physicists during the 15th century. Muslim mathematicians as early as the 10th century solved numerous equations of even higher degrees with ease. Binomial theorem was utilized and perfected for its use in the systematic solution of algebraic problems by hundreds of the Muslim mathematicians. In the 10th century numerous Muslim chemists produced medicinal-grade alcohol through the process of distillation and manufactured the first distillation devices on a large scale for use in chemistry. They used alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic. The prophet Muhammad wisely warned against entering or leaving a region suffering from plague thus introducing the concept of quarantine for the very first time in the 7th century A.D. later in the 10th century, Muslim physicians innovated the use of isolation wards for individuals suffering with communicable diseases. As early as the 10th century, Muslim physicians and surgeons of 10th century used to apply purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent. In Islamic Spain surgeons utilized special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery. The origin of specific protocols for maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period raised the success rate so high that dignitaries throughout Europe came to Cordova, Spain, to be treated at what was comparably the Mayo Clinic of the Middle Ages. Islams ar-Razi wrote an in-depth treatise on the venous system, accurately describing the function of the veins and their valves in the 10th century. Timeline of Muslim Scientists from 700 900 AD: 8th century: 700s [petroleum; civil engineering] In Baghdad the streets were constructed and paved with tar, coming from the petroleum that oozed in natural oil fields in the region.   700s 800s [cosmetics] In Spain a beauty institute was started by Ziryab (Blackbird). 740 828 Al-Amai, Zoology, Botany, Animal husbandry.   770 840 [mathematics] The Calculus of resolution and juxtaposition (hisab al-jabr wal-muqabala), more briefly referred to as al-jabr, or algebra, was developed by Kharazmi, Algebra was a unifying theory which allowed rational numbers, irrational numbers, geometrical magnitudes, etc., to all be treated as algebraic objects. It gave mathematics a whole new development path so much broader in concept to that which had existed before, and provided a vehicle for future development of the subject. Another important aspect of the introduction of algebraic ideas was that it allowed mathematics to be applied to itself in a way which had not happened before.   Al-Khwarizmis successors undertook a systematic application of arithmetic to algebra, algebra to arithmetic, both to trigonometry, algebra to the Euclidean theory of numbers, algebra to geometry, and geometry to algebra. This was how the creation of polynomial algebra, combinatorial analysis, numerical analysis, the numerical solution of equations, the new elementary theory of numbers, and the geometric construction of equations arose.   Late 700s 800 [musical science] Mansour Zalzal of Kufa was a musician (luth) and composer of the Abbasid era. Contributed musical scales that were later named after him (the Mansouri scale) and introduced positions (intervals) within scales such as the wasati-zalzal that was equidistant from the alwasati alqadima and wasati al-fors who made improvements on the design of the luth instrument and designed the Luth. In 715 800 [chemistry] The Muslim chemist, Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan), is considered the father of chemistry, for introducing the experimental scientific method for chemistry, such as alembic, still, retort, pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, and filtration. He was the first chemist known to produce sulfuric acid, as well as many other laboratory instruments and chemical substances. His works include The elaboration of the Grand Elixir, The chest of wisdom in which he writes on nitric acid, Kitab al-Istitmam (translated to Latin later as Summa Perfectionis), and many others.   715 800 [alchemy] Geber, introduced the first theories on the transmutation of metals, the philosophers stone, and the artificial creation of life in the laboratory.   715 800 [glass] Geber added colour to glass by introducing small quantities of metallic oxides to the glass, such as manganese dioxide (magnesia). This was a new advancement in the glass industry unknown in antiquity.   9th century: 800 868 [biology, zoology, linguistics, language,] Amr ibn Bahr al-Jahiz wrote a number of works on zoology, lexicography, rhetoric, and Arabic grammar. In his most famous book the Book of Animals, he was the first to discuss food chains, and environmental determinism by arguing that the environment can determine the physical characteristics of the inhabitants in a certain community he also stated that the origins of different colors of human skin is the result of the environment. The struggle for existence and the theory of evolution by natural selection was first discussed by him. 800 873 Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi (Latinized, Alkindus.) was an expert in Optics, Metallurgy, Cryptography, Medicine, Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy. He worked at the House of Wisdom which was set up in 810. He introduces quantification into medicine in his book De Gradibus.   In 810 the works of Greek and Indian scientists on astronomy and mathematics were translated into Arabic in Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) which was set up in Baghdad. 820 [mathematics] Mahani (full name Abu Abdollah Muhammad ibn Isa Mahani in Arabic Al-Mahani). Conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to algebraic problems.   836 901 [anatomy; astronomy; mathematics; mechanics] Born Thabit Ibn Qurra (Latinized, Thebit.) made considerable contributions in mathematics particularly in number theory and geometry while studying at Baghdads House of Wisdom under the Banu Musa brothers. He discovered the theorem by which pairs of amicable numbers can be found; i.e., two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the other. Later, al-Baghdadi (b. 980) and al-Haytham (born 965) developed variants of the theorem.   838 870 Tabari (full name: Ali ibn Sahl Rabban Al-Tabari) made many contributions in Calligraphy, Mathematics, Literature, and Medicine.   In mid 800s [chemistry] Al-Kindi gave 107 recipes for making perfumes and also wrote on the distillation of wine as that of rose water, in his book Kitab Kimia al-`otoor wa al-tas`eedat (book of the chemistry of perfumes and distillations).   850 930 [mathematics] Abu Kamil of Egypt (full name, Abu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam ibn Muhammad ibn Shuja) made an important link in the development of algebra between al-Khwarizmi and al-Karajis time not using the symbols, but writing powers of x in words, he had begun to understand what should be written in symbols. 852 [aviation, flight] Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firman) made the first successful parachute fall near CÃÆ' ³rdoba, Spain using a huge wing-like cloak. 858 929 [astronomy mathematics] Al-Battani (Albategnius) made valuable works on astronomy, trigonometry etc.   860 Al-Farghani (Al-Fraganus) was master in Civil engineering and Astronomy. 864 930 [chemistry; medicine] Al-Razi (Rhazes) studied Astronomy, Chemistry, Medicine, Ophthalmology and Smallpox. He wrote on Naft (naphta or petroleum) and its distillates in his book Kitab sirr al-asrar (book of the secret of secrets). When choosing a site to build Baghdads hospital, he hung pieces of fresh meat in different parts of the city and selected the location where the meat took the longest to rot, for building the hospital. He also suggested that patients must not be told about their real condition so that fear or despair may not affect the healing process. His notable works were on soap, alkali, caustic soda, and glycerine. He also gave the descriptions of equipment, processes and methods for their preparation in his book Kitab al-Asrar (book of secrets) in 925.   870 950 Al-Farabi (Al-Pharabius) wrote on early Islamic philosophy, logic in Islamic philosophy, Muslim sociology, musical science and political science. In   875 [aviation, flight] Abbas Ibn Firnas made the first flight in a hang glider with artificial wings, but his landing was unsuccessful. He also worked on mechanics of Flight, Planetarium, and Artificial Crystals. Ibn Firnas was the first to investigate the means of flight.   800s [chemistry; petroleum] Oilfields in Baku, Azerbaijan, generated commercial activities and industry. These oilfields, were wells dug to get the Naft (or naphta, or crude petroleum) these were described by geographer Masudi in the 10th century and by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads.   10th century: 900s [mathematics; accounting] By this century, three systems of counting were used in the Arab world. First was the Finger-reckoning arithmetic, in this system the numerals were written entirely in words this system was used by the business community. Second was the sexagesimal system, originated by the Babylonians, in this system the numerals were denoted by letters of the arabic alphabet it was used by Arab mathematicians in astronomical work. The third was the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, which was used with various sets of symbols. Arithmetic of this system required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld blackboard) because the methods required moving of numbers in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded. Later these methods were modified by Al-Uqlidisi (born 920) for pen and paper use. Eventually the advances enabled the decimal system to be used throughout the world in its standard form.  

The Mention of the Israelites in Egyptian Scriptures :: essays research papers fc

There are several Egyptian documents that not only mention the Israelites in their texts, but also tie the Bible to historical facts. Egyptian documents such as the Tell el-Amarna letters, a large â€Å"stele† of the Menephtah, and the Elephantine papyri not only tell the history of Egypt, they also coincide with biblical scripture. The documents confirm not only dates, certain numbers, and rituals, such as circumcision, but places and event, e.g. The Exodus, of biblical stories.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to James Orr, general editor for â€Å"The Definition for Egypt,† the Tell el-Amarna Letters were discovered in 1887. â€Å"These documents refer to many Biblical cities; they also give much direct information concerning the political and social conditions at that period† (Orr, Palestine). Damien Mackey’s â€Å"The House of David,† shows the remarkable similarities between several rulers in Egypt and the three kings (Saul, David, and Salomon) mentioned in the Bible. In Michael Grant’s â€Å"The History of Ancient Israel,† he states that a ruler in the 14th century named Labayu ruled over Shechem and extended his kingdom as far as the Mediterranean coast (18). One model given in the case of Saul tells of a second name stated in Psalm 57; the name is Lebaim, â€Å"a unique word in the Old Testament meaning great lions.† In line with this passage comes a reference from the Amarna letters; an Egyptian pharaoh whose name was Labayu, meaning â€Å"Great Lion of (N)’ where N is a god’s name† (Mackey 1). The Amarna letters could also wrap together David and Tuthmosis III as one and the same. Labayu had sons that battled for an equally important roll after his death (Grant 18). In II Samuel 3:1, the passage tells of how Saul’s two sons Ish-Bosheth and David fought for power. This leads Mackey to a comprehensive comparison between David and Tuthmosis I & III. A few illustrations in the contrast are ranging from military campaigns to coronation ceremonies (Mackey 3-5). In the military campaign of Megiddo, the records by Tuthmosis III describe the split of his armies to defeat scattered forces in separate Canaanite towns. Later, Tuthmosis rejoins his armies to capture of Megiddo (Orr, Palestine). This corresponds with II Samuel 11:1 account of David’s conquest of Rabbah (Mackey 5). Although, not as much information is found on the Elephantine papyri and the â€Å"stele† of Menephtah, they still display the bonds between the history of Egypt and biblical scriptures.

John Gotti: The Teflon Don Essay

â€Å"There was nothing that my father loved more than being a gangster. Not money, not even us. He felt that anybody that really lived this life like he did, at the end of the day you have to die or go to jail.† – John Gotti Jr. Who is John Gotti? Depending upon who you ask this question to, your answer could vary. Growing up in my neighborhood in Far Rockaway, Queens John Gotti is a legend and someone people look up to. At the same time you can ask other people about John Gotti and they will tell you that he was a ruthless thug and a menace to society. Either way you look at it John Gotti made his mark here in America and he was known all across the country for being the boss of the largest and most powerful of the five families in New York, the Gambino crime family. I will not talk about my opinions on John Gotti in this paper but I will give you his life story from his birth in the Bronx to his death in prison and let you be the judge. John Joseph Gotti was born on October 27, 1940 in the Bronx, New York. John was the fifth child of Philomena (Fannie) and Joseph Gotti, who were Italian Immigrants. Joseph and Fannie Gotti also had twelve other children; four of which who would also become made men, or members of the Mafia. John’s younger brother Gene Gotti was actually initiated before John was due to John’s incarceration at that time. During John’s time as boss of the Gambino crime family he had his brother Peter Gotti initiated despite John’s belief (and that of many others) that Peter did not have what it takes to be La Cosa Nostra. Peter earned himself the nickname â€Å"the dumbest don† after the incarceration of John Gotti, Gene Gotti, and John Gotti Jr. when he assumed the position of Boss of the Gambino crime family. The other two brothers were Richard Gotti, who would be revealed as capo in 2002, and Vincent Gotti. John Gotti spent his early years growing up in poverty. John Gotti’s father Joseph Gotti was a day laborer who never had regular work or a steady source of income. On top of Joseph Gotti’s problems with findin g decent work so he would be able to provide for his family, he also had a gambling problem. This was a huge problem because he was the only earning member of the large family. John Gotti came to resent his father for not being able to provide the family. By the time Gotti reached the age of twelve, he was already an errand boy working for an underground club. This club was headed by Carmine Fatico, a capo in the Gambino crime family. Fatico was an early mentor Gotti until John was introduced to Aniello Dellacroce, who became his mentor for life. Gotti had his first run in with the law in 1954 when he was caught with friends attempting to steal a portable cement mixer that tipped over and crushed the toes of his feet. He had to be hospitalized for a while and as a result he is supposedly missing a toe or two. By 1956, Gotti had dropped out of Franklin K. Lane High School and was named the leader of the Fulton-Rockaway Boys. This gang is where he meets and befriends Angelo Ruggiero and Wilfred Johnson, who also become Made Men in the Gambino crime family. When Gotti moved with his family to Ozone Park in Queens, New York, Gotti became a key member of the Gambino hijacking crew. Along with his brother Gene and Ruggiero, Gotti began hija cking trucks at what would come to be known as John F Kennedy International Airport. This is where he was introduced to and befriended future Bonanno crime family boss Joseph Massino. It was here that they were given the nicknames of â€Å"Black John† and â€Å"Crazy Horse†. In 1968, Gotti was arrested for the hijackings. While out on bail, Gotti was arrested again for a hijacking on the New Jersey Turnpike. Gotti pleaded guilty to the Northwest Airlines hijackings but the charges were dropped on the New Jersey Turnpike cigarette hijackings. Gotti served three years in Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary for the hijackings. After his release in 1972, Gotti returned to the Bergin Hunt and Fish Club to work with Carmine Fatico until later that year when Fatico was indicted on loansharking charges. Despite Gotti not yet being a Made Man, Fatico named him the acting capo of the Bergin crew. It was at this time that Gotti and Dellacroce grew closer because Gotti would frequently come to the Ravenite Social Club to brief Dellacroce on his crew’s activities. In May of 1973, Emanuel Gambino, nephew of Carlo Gambino who was the current head of the family, was kidnapped and murdered despite the payment of a $100,000 ransom. Gotti was tasked to take out the man responsible along with Ruggiero and Ralph Galione. The primary suspect was an Irish gangster by the name of James McBrantley. Gotti and his boys found McBrantly in a bar in Staten Island. While Gotti and Ruggiero go over and try to take him somewhere, Galione comes over and shoots McBrantley in the middle of the club for everyone to see. Gotti would be arrested for this murder one year later after being fingered by many eyewitnesses, one of which was his friend Wilfred â€Å"Willie Boy† Johnson. Gotti was able to strike a plea bargain so he would only serve four years in prison for attempted manslaughter. After the Death of Carlo Gambino in 1976, Paul â€Å"Big Paul† Castellano became the boss of the Gambino crime family. Upon his release in 1977, John Gotti was immediat ely initiated into the Gambino crime family. Gotti was immediately promoted to capo of the Bergin crew, replacing Carmine Fatico. Castellano kept Dellacroce as his underboss and gave him control over 10 of the 23 crews, including Gotti’s Bergin crew. Gotti’s Bergin crew was the largest earners of all of Dellacroce’s crews. Gotti also ran a loansharking business on the side on top of taking his cut from all the money that his subordinates made. Gotti had many people working for him and he made them all make regular appearances at the Bergin and would get irritated if someone didn’t check in within 48 hours, he kept this routine when he moved to the Ravenite Social Club. In 1980, Gotti’s son Frank Gotti was killed in a traffic accident by their neighbor, John Favara. Favara was abducted and never to be heard from again, many believe him to be dead. Despite the belief of some people that Gotti killed Favara himself, the Gotti’s were on vacation in Florida at the time of his abduction. John Gotti Jr., future head of the Gambino crime family, still believes that his father m ost definitely had something to do with his disappearance though. In his remaining years as capo of the Bergin crew, Gotti was indicted on two separate occasions. He would not go to trial for either of these cases until he was crowned boss of the Gambino crime family. One of these cases came in September of 1984; Gotti was arrested for the assault and robbery of a refrigerator repairman named Romual Piecyk. Piecyk found his car blocked by a double parked vehicle outside of the Cozy Corner Bar in Queens. Piecyk laid on his car horn until Frank Colletta, the owner of the double parked car and Gambino family associate, came out, smacked him across the face and took his weekly paycheck out of his shirt pocket. When Piecyk began to fight back, Gotti came running out and smacked him across the face and reached into his waistband and told him â€Å"you better get the f*** out of here!† Piecyk went and got the police and they returned to the bar and arrested Gotti and Colletta. The second indictment came in 1985 when Gotti along with Dellacroce and other Bergin crew members were the targets of a racketeering case, headed by US Attorney Diane Gi acalone. It was the latter case that revealed Gotti’s close friend, Willie Boy Johnson, to be an FBI informant. When Gotti found out all he had to say to Johnson was â€Å"I’m gonna give you a pass, and I give you my word no one will bother you, Gotti told Willie Boy. After we win this case, you won’t be able to be in the life again. But you’ll get a job, you’ll have your family, and you’ll be all right.† As the boss of the family, Paul Castellano had banned Made Men from the Gambino family in dealing with drugs under the threat of death. In 1983, Angelo Ruggiero and Gene Gotti along with a few others were all indicted on heroin charges. The indictment came about through bugs placed in the home of Angelo Ruggiero, using evidence given to the FBI by Willie Boy Johnson. Along with the talks of heroin deals on these tapes there were also some remarks made about Castellano from Ruggiero on there. Castellano’s pursuit to hear what was on these tapes would be the beginning of the end for him. Although John Gotti was not on any of the tapes and they co uld make no connection to him, Castellano was still looking to hold Gotti accountable. In fear for his life, Ruggiero went to Dellacroce to see if he could plead his case to Castellano that they were only sorting out the affairs of his brother Salvatore Ruggiero, a big time heroin dealer who had no ties to the family. The story was enough to hold Castellano off until he received the tapes. In the spring of 1985 Castellano began pressing for the tapes again but backed off when he found out that his underboss, Dellacroce, was dying of cancer. He figured that if he waited for Dellacroce to die, there would be nobody he had to worry about stopping him from getting the tapes. Castellano was able to hear the tapes that summer and began formulating a plan of action but would hold off on putting that plan in motion until Dellacroce died. Gotti knew Castellano, who was never a fan of Gotti and wanted him out of the family, would have him killed so he began a plot of his own along with Frank DeCicco, Sammy Gravano, Joseph Armone, and Robert DiBernardo. When Dellacroce died on December 2, 1985, it was time for one of the sides to make their move. Castellano did not show up at the services for his former underboss and that infuriated Gotti and other members of the family and also members of the other four fam ilies. For Gotti to have the head of his family killed, he would first have to go to the heads of the other families in New York for permission. Gotti got the necessary votes from the Bonanno, Colombo, and Luchesse families for the hit. â€Å"The Fist†, which is what the five men went by, had the perfect set up. They figured that a little over a week before Christmas, around rush hour, between 5pm and 6pm that the streets would be flooded with probably over a thousand people doing there holiday errands. They figured the hit would only last a few seconds and the confusion from the panic after the gunshots went off would make for the perfect escape. The four designated shooters were Vincent Artuso, John Carneglia, Eddie Lino and Salvatore Scala. The designated back-up shooter, Anthony Tony Roach Rampino, would be standing across the street from Sparks Steak House, while Angelo Ruggiero, Joseph Watts and Iggy Alogna would be stationed at 46th Street and Second Avenue to help with the escape. Frank DeCicco would be inside the restaurant where a meeting was to take place. He would be joined there by capos James Failla and Daniel Marino, who were not part of the plot. On December 16 Big Paul had arranged to meet Dellacroce’s son Buddy Dellacroce at Sparks Steak House on East 46th Street. Frank DeCicco set it up. Castellano was going to pay homage, to explain why he had not come to the wake and offered condolences, to make amends. It wouldn’t be until the afternoon of the planned murders that the actual hit team knew who their targets were. Huddled in a park on Manhattans Lower East Side, the group went over the final details of the murder plot. The four shooters were dressed alike long light colored trench coats and black fur Russian style hats. The reasoning for this was to draw attention to the outfits, not the men wearing them. Gotti and Gravano parked a Lincoln, driven by John himself, up the block in sight of the front of Sparks Steak House. Moments later Thomas Bilotti, Big Paul’s new underboss, pulled up next to Gottiâ€℠¢s car at an intersection and waited for the light to change. Using a walkie-talkie Gravano notified the others that Castellano was approaching. Bilotti steered the Lincoln into an open space in front of Sparks and got out. As Castellano stepped out of the vehicle, the hit men moved in. Big Paul was hit six times in the head and killed instantly. When the shooting began, the unarmed Bilotti ducked and looked through the driver’s side window only to see his boss’s execution, unaware that killers were now aiming at him. As the shooters assigned to Bilotti opened fire, Artuso’s gun jammed. However, the gunfire from the second assassin dropped the newly crowned underboss. Carneglia, who had finished blasting away at Castellano, ran over to the other side of the car and put the finishing touches on Bilotti. After the very public killing of Castellano and underboss Bilotti, Gotti found himself in the media spotlight a lot and was widely suspected to be responsible for the murders. Gotti became known as the â€Å"Dapper Don† for his expensive suits, hand painted ties, and meticulously groomed silver hair. At the time of Gotti’s takeover, the Gambino family was regarded as the most powerful American mafia family, which is why during this time he was regarded as a boss of bosses. The Gambino crime family’s estimated annual income was around five hundred million dollars. According to Sammy â€Å"The Bull† Gravano, Gotti was bringing in about ten to twelve million dollars per year. In an attempt to protect himself and his underlings legally, he banned any Made Man from taking a plea agreement that acknowledges the existence of the family. Gotti’s fame came to affect the outcome of his previous indictments from 1984 and 1985. By the mid to late 1980s, John Gotti had gone from the â€Å"Dapper Don† to the â€Å"Teflon Don† because of the failure to make any charges stick to him. When Gotti went to trial for the 1984 assault and robbery of Romual Piecyk, Gotti benefited from his new fame. Piecyk received many phone calls and the breaks to his work van were cut. Fearing for the worst, Piecyk went into hiding, hoping he would not have to testify. When Piecyk was forced to testify he said he could not remember who his attackers were . Because of his random loss of memory, the New York Daily News came out with a headline that read â€Å"I Forgotti!† On April 7, 1986 the jury selection for Gotti’s RICO case began. With the success Gotti had in intimidating Piecyk in his prior case, he decided to use the same tactics to beat this case. Dennis Quirk was the first witness to be approached by Gotti’s men and was murdered right before he had to testify against Gotti’s co-defendant, Charles Carnaglia. The events to happen in the next few days would lead Judge Nickerson to postpone the trial. On the morning of April 9, a bomb threat was called into the courthouse, clearing it immediately. On April 13, 1986, underboss Frank DeCicco was killed when his car was bombed following a visit to James Failla. The bombing was carried out by Lucchese capos Victor Amuso and Anthony Casso, under orders of bosses Anthony Corallo and Vincent Gigante, to avenge Castellano and Bilotti. Gotti also planned to visit Failla that day, but canceled, and the bomb was detonated after a soldier who rode with DeCicco was mistaken for the boss. While Gotti’s trial had been postponed, he remained in jail beca use his bail had been revoked for evidence of intimidation in the Piecyk case. Pretrial motions were handled on August 18, 1986. Judge Nickerson had ruled that there would be an anonymous jury to protect jurors from intimidation and the jury would not be sequestered, or isolated. Cutler claimed that such a jury creates fear that is misplaced and deprives the defendants of a fair trial. Bruce Cutler, John Gotti’s lawyer, went at the credibility of the prosecution’s witnesses like Edward Maloney and Mathew Traynor, calling them low lives and scum. This would come to be known as â€Å"Brucifying†, it was a tag that Cutler would gladly wear. Along with stripping the credibility of some of the prosecutor’s witnesses, Gravano was reached out to in order to offer his vote of not guilty to ensure a hung jury. This man’s name was George Pape; he offered his vote for sixty thousand dollars. On March 13, 1987, they acquitted Gotti and his codefendants of all charges. In February 1986, the Bankers and Brokers Restaurant in Battery Park City was under construction. The restaurant was under the management of Philip Modica, whom police described as a Gambino crime-family soldier. Modica was not using union carpenters in the construction, which upset John F. O’Connor, The business agent and chief operating officer of Manhattan-based Local 608 of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters & Joiners. O’Connor responded by having the restaurant trashed one February night, causing some thirty thousand dollars’ worth of damage. When Modica took his complaint to Gotti, he ordered that O’Connor be busted up and the assignment was given to members of the Westies, a gang of Irish thugs from the Hell’s Kitchen section of Manhattan. At 6:40 in the morning on May 7, O’Connor was waiting to enter an elevator in the lobby of a midtown Manhattan building that housed his union offices. Westies gang member Kevin Kelly at O’Connor shot four times, wounding him in the butt, left leg and hip. The union official was rushed to St. Clare’s Hospital, where he soon recovered. On the evening of January 23, 1989, John Gotti was arrested outside the Ravenite Social Club and charged with ordering the 1986 assault of union official John O’Connor. There were bugs planted in the Ravenite Social Club and in an apartment above the club in which Gotti had frequent meetings where he spoke freely about Gambino family business. They used these tapes in trial when they heard what they thought to be Gotti telling someone to â€Å"Bust him up!† in reference to O’Connor. Although they had these tapes for a while, nobody warned John O’Connor about what might happen to him. Gotti’s defense attorney’s, Cutler and Shargel used this in trial stating that If the tapes weren’t clear enough to warn O’Connor, then they are not clear enough to convict Gotti. Along with the bad sound quality of the tapes and some Brucifying, Gotti was eventually acquitted on all counts due in part to the testimony of O’Connor himself. O’Connor testified that he was never told his life was in danger or that anyone was going to â€Å"bust him up†. The defense was attempting to prove that since the investigators had not warned O’Connor, they had no evidence that named him as the target of Gotti’s â€Å"bust him up† comment. O’Connor also testified that there were internal conflicts within the union at the time he was wounded and that he had many enemies. On December 11, 1990, FBI Agents arrested John Gotti, Sammy Gravano, and Frank Locasio. This was the fourth indictment for Gotti since he came to power after ordering the killings of Paul Castellano and his underboss Thomas Bilotti. However, this was the first time that Gotti would be indicted for the latter murders. He would also be indicted for the murders of Robert DiBernardo, Liborio Milito and Louis Dibono. Along with those murders, Gotti would also be charged with the conspiracy to murder Gaetano â€Å"Corky† Vastola, loansharking, illegal gambling, obstruction of justice, bribery and tax evasion. Gotti and his co-defendants were once again denied bail. Along with Gotti being denied bail, Bruce Cutler and Gerald Shargel, were disqualified from being able to represent any of the defendants in this trial due to some recordings that proved them to be working as â€Å"in house counsel† for the Gambino crime family. The tapes also created tensions between Gotti and Gravano. The tapes showed Gotti describing Gravano as too greedy and attempted to frame Sam my as the main force behind the murders of DiBernardo, Milito and Dibono. Gravano decided to turn state’s evidence in 1991 and testify against Gotti. The case was tried in the US District Court for the Eastern District of New York. The presiding judge was US District Judge Israel Leo Glasser. For the first time ever the jury was kept anonymous and totally sequestered in a Brooklyn Federal case. The prosecutors, Andrew Maloney and John Gleeson, opening statements were given on February 12, 1992. They played tapes from bugs planted in the Ravenite Social Club and the apartment above the club that had Gotti discussing Gambino family business, killings that he ordered, and showed the animosity he had towards Big Paul which also gave him a motive for the killing of the former head of the family. On March 2, 1992, Sammy â€Å"The Bull† Gravano began his testimony. Gravano told the court about Gotti’s ranking as the head of the family. He also told the court about Gotti’s role in the Castellano and Bilotti hit and gave them every detail of the hit. Gotti’s defense provided no real help. All of Albert Krieger’s, Gotti’s new defense attorney, witnesses’ testimonies were d ismissed except for one and that was the testimony of Gotti’s tax attorney. The prosecution rested its case on March 24 and John Gotti was convicted on all accounts on April 2. John Gotti was sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole on June 23, 1992. James Fox, the director of the New York City FBI, announced at a press conference, â€Å"The Teflon is gone. The don is covered with Velcro, and all the charges stuck.† Gotti was sent to serve his sentence at the US Penitentiary in Marion, Illinois. Gotti eventually died of throat cancer in June of 2002. John Gotti would not be able to have his funeral in the church due to the request of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn. After the funeral, hundreds of people followed the hearse which drove through Gotti’s old neighborhood and past the Bergin Hunt and Fish Club.

The City Of New Orleans - 2626 Words

The city of New Orleans lies below sea level in a bowl bordered by levees which prevent the high waters of the Mississippi River from flooding the city. These levees were put to the test on August 29, 2005 when Hurricane Katrina hit, causing severe destruction along the Gulf coast. Three concrete floodwalls protecting the city of New Orleans fractured and burst under the weight of surging waters from the hurricane, killing hundreds and resulting in an estimated $100 to $150 billion worth of damage (Luegenbiehl, 2007). In the aftermath of the storm, society placed part of the blame on design flaws that compromised the safety of the levees and endangered the public. Under the Flood Control Act of 1965, Congress had mandated the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) to protect the city from a Category 3 storm, yet the floodwalls were unable to withstand the force of Hurricane Katrina, which was eventually classified as Category 3 (Grunwalk Warrick, 2005). The Corps pointed towards a massi ve surge that exceeded the height of the floodwalls, but investigations by civil engineers and other experts pointed towards the inadequate design and construction by the Corps of Engineers as the cause of the failure (Englehardt et al., 2013). The Corps acted in a manner contradicting ethical engineering behavior by being less than forthcoming about deficiencies that were accumulating in the overall system. In order to prevent future disasters involving human life, the government should requireShow MoreRelatedThe City Of New Orleans922 Words   |  4 Pagescould be seen on the roofs of buildings across the city. A neighborhood TV channel reported New Orleans was encountering broad flooding due to levee damage, clean water was scarce, and the city was electrically deficient and was estimated to last for weeks. At day’s end, the Mayor of New Orleans described the considerable death toll with reports of bodies floating on the water throughout the city. The National Guard set u p morgues all throughout the city. Coordination of rescue efforts days to come wereRead MoreThe City Of New Orleans971 Words   |  4 PagesWelcome to the city of New Orleans, Louisiana! New Orleans is one of the most popular cities in the boot. This wonderful, distinctive place is the home of plenty of unknown special activities instead of what most know which is Mardi Gras. Believe it or not, New Orleans, is a go-to city for most events that many, if not most Northern Louisianan may not existence. In other states, people can come to a conclusion that all Louisiana natives are the same, but we vary around the state. New Orleans is differentRead MoreThe City Of New Orleans1709 Words   |  7 PagesThe City of New Orleans is a remarkable city and has enormous potential for expansion. The â€Å"Big Easy† has always been known for the French Quarter, yet New Orleans is so much more than just a â€Å"party city†. I suspect there is a demand to show the â€Å"family friendly† side of our city. My proposal is to offer new development in a vigilant and financially responsible manner, while offering a glimpse of the extraordinarily exciting and expansive visions that I hope to witness in the future. The marketRead MoreThe City Of New Orleans870 Words   |  4 PagesOn August 29, 2005, one of the largest hurricanes ever recorded hit the city of New Orleans, devastating millions and changing their lives and their city forever. The category 3 hurricane created mass displacement and mass destruction that the city has yet to fully recover from. The residents of this once lively and culture-filled city are still attempting to rebuild what was washed away for them ten years ago. Louisiana was home to many individuals who simply loved their state and it’s peopleRead MoreThe City Of New Orleans1805 Words   |  8 Pagesâ€Å"New Orleans is unlike any city in America. Its cultural diversity is woven into the food, the music, the architecture – even the local superstisions. It’s a sensory experience on all levels and there’s a story lukring around every corner.† –Ruta Sepetys The city of New Orleans, Louisiana is a very different and special place. The population is about 390,000 based on the 2014 census. The city was named after the Regent to Louis XV, the Duke of Orleans in the early 1700s. It was established byRead MoreThe City Of New Orleans1471 Words   |  6 Pages In the city of New Orleans emerged one of the most influential music genres in the history of the United States of America. At the time, New Orleans was known for being a blending pot of people or rather, a location where people from all over the world came together in one place. This city served as a key seaport in the U.S. allowing for goods to be imported and exported. The purpose of this city was not only strategic to the growth of the country, but also allowed for the incredible mixing ofRead MoreThe City Of New Orleans2342 Words   |  10 Pages Reactions The city is dead. Without a single person out in the street, and without the bright summer sunshine that wakes people up for another Monday morning. The city was completely gone; the city that used to burst with people and streets that were filled with energy is now empty but filled with filthy water. It was August 29, 2005, when the hurricane entered the warm water of the Gulf and grew to be a monstrous storm. So monstrous, that it destroyed anything in its path. The hurricane that weRead MoreThe Great City Of New Orleans2217 Words   |  9 PagesIn this great city of New Orleans, we have so many extravagant elements that distinguishes us from other cities. From Mardi Gras to the French Quarters to Canal St., they all play an important part in this city s history. The different historical statues we have scattered about the city also cause major attractions and either people love or hate them. Lately, four specific statues have been getting a lot of attention around town from not o nly the citizens, but from our very own mayor, Mitch LandrieuRead MoreNew Orleans: A Historic City849 Words   |  3 PagesNew Orleans is the largest city in Louisiana, it is located in the southern part of the state, between The Mississippi River and Lake Ponchartrain. New Orleans has belonged to Spain, France, and the United States. It was founded by the French in 1718. New Orleans has about 712 churches in all. It has about 165 city owned parks. New Orleans is famous for its French Quarter, with its mixture of French, Spanish, and native architectural styles. The Mardi Gras is a week of carnival held in New OrleansRead MoreComparison Between City London And New Orleans1094 Words   |  5 PagesI will compare my city London to New Orleans. I will investigate and compare them to each other which is going to be easy I hope you enjoy me explaining to you their similarities and difference. Landforms: New Orleans, Louisiana has a river named Mississippi Rivers, wet marsh land, Sabine uplifts are Shallow, muddy seas advanced and retreated over the coastal and river plains many times, and gray clay deposited under these seas now forms the aquifers of northern Louisiana. Which are and has no mountains;